Accounting Methods

An accounting method is a set of rules used to determine when and how income and expenses are reported. Your accounting method includes not only the overall method of accounting you use, but also the accounting treatment you use for any material item.

You choose an accounting method for your farm business when you file your first income tax return that includes a Schedule F. However, you cannot use the crop method for any tax return, including your first tax return, unless you get IRS approval. The crop method is discussed under Special Methods of Accounting, later. Getting IRS approval to change an accounting method is discussed later under Change in Accounting Method.

Kinds of methods. Generally, you can use any of the following accounting methods.

• Cash method.
• An accrual method.
• Special methods of accounting for certain items of income and expenses.
• Combination (hybrid) method using elements of two or more of the above.

However, certain farm corporations and partnerships, and all tax shelters, must use an accrual method of accounting. See Accrual method required, later.

Business and personal items. You can account for business and personal items under different accounting methods. For example, you can figure your business income under an accrual method, even if you use the cash method to figure personal items.

Two or more businesses. If you have two or more separate and distinct trades or businesses, you can use a different accounting method for each if the method clearly reflects the income of each business. They are separate and distinct only if you maintain complete and separable books and records for each business.

Accrual method required. The following businesses engaged in farming must use an accrual method of accounting.

1. A corporation (other than a family corporation) that had gross receipts of more than $1,000,000 for any tax year beginning after 1975.
2. A family corporation that had gross receipts of more than $25,000,000 for any tax year beginning after 1985.
3. A farming partnership with a corporation as a partner.
4. Any tax shelter.

For this purpose, an S corporation is not treated as a corporation. Also, items (1), (2), and (3) do not apply to a business engaged in operating a nursery or sod farm or in raising or harvesting trees (other than fruit and nut trees).

Family corporation. A family corporation is generally a corporation that meets one of the following ownership requirements.

1. Members of the same family own at least 50% of the total combined voting power of all classes of stock entitled to vote and at least 50% of the total shares of all other classes of stock of the corporation.
2. Members of two families owned, directly or indirectly, on October 4, 1976, and since then, at least 65% of the total combined voting power of all classes of stock entitled to vote and at least 65% of the total shares of all other classes of stock of the corporation.
3. Members of three families owned, directly or indirectly, on October 4, 1976, and since then, at least 50% of the total combined voting power of all classes of stock entitled to vote and at least 50% of the total shares of all other classes of stock of the corporation.

For more information on family corporations, see section 447 of the Internal Revenue Code.

Tax shelter. A tax shelter is a partnership, noncorporate enterprise, or S corporation that meets either of the following tests.

1. Its principal purpose is the avoidance or evasion of federal income tax.
2. It is a farming syndicate. A farming syndicate is an entity that meets either of the following tests.
   1. Interests in the activity have ever been offered for sale in any offering required to be registered with any federal or state agency with the authority to regulate the offering of securities for sale, or
   2. More than 35% of the losses during the tax year are allocable to limited partners or limited entrepreneurs.
      1. A "limited partner" is one whose personal liability for partnership debts is limited to the money or other property the partner contributed or is required to contribute to the partnership.
      2. A "limited entrepreneur" is a person who has an interest in an enterprise other than as a limited partner and does not actively participate in the management of the enterprise.

Cash Method

Most farmers use the cash method because they find it easier to keep cash method records. However, certain farm corporations and partnerships and all tax shelters must use an accrual method of accounting. See Accrual method required, earlier.

Income

Under the cash method, you include in your gross income all items of income you actually or constructively receive during your tax year. If you receive property or services, you must include their fair market value in income. See chapter 4 for information on how to report farm income on your income tax return.

Constructive receipt. You generally have constructive receipt of income when an amount is credited to your account or made available to you without restriction. You do not need to have possession of it. If you authorize someone to be your agent and receive income for you, you are treated as having received it when your agent received it.

Example. Interest is credited to your account at a grain elevator in December 2000. You do not withdraw it until 2001. You must include it in your gross income for 2000.

Production flexibility contract payments. If you receive production flexibility payments under the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996, you are not considered to constructively receive a payment merely because you have the option to receive it in the year before it is required to be paid. You disregard that option in determining when to include the payment in your income. This rule applies to any farm production flexibility payment made under the 1996 Act as in effect on December 17, 1999.

Delaying receipt of income. You cannot hold checks or postpone taking possession of similar property from one tax year to another to avoid paying tax on the income. You must report the income in the year the property is received or made available to you without restriction.

Example. Frances Jones, a farmer, was entitled to receive a $10,000 payment on a contract in December 2000. The contract was not a production flexibility contract. She was told in December that her payment was available. At her request, she was not paid until January 2001. She must include this payment in her 2000 income because it was constructively received in 2000.

Checks. Receipt of a valid check by the end of the tax year is constructive receipt of income in that year, even if you cannot cash or deposit the check until the following year.

Example. Mrs. Redd received a check for $500 on December 31, 2000, from a neighbor who was buying some of her corn. She could not deposit the check in her farm business account until January 2, 2001. She must include this amount in her income for 2000.

Debts paid by another person or canceled. If your debts are paid by another person or are canceled by your creditors, you may have to report part or all of this debt relief as income. If you receive income in this way, you constructively receive the income when the debt is canceled or paid. See Cancellation of Debt in chapter 4.

Installment sale. If you sell an item under a deferred payment contract that calls for payment the following year, there is no constructive receipt in the year of sale. However, see the following example for an exception to this rule.

Example. You are a farmer who uses the cash method and a calendar tax year. You sell grain in December 2000 under a bona fide arm's-length contract that calls for payment in 2001. You include the sale proceeds in your 2001 gross income since that is the year payment is received. However, if the contract says that you have the right to the proceeds from the buyer at any time after the grain is delivered, you must include the sale price in your 2000 income, regardless of when you actually receive payment.

Repayment of income. If you include an amount in income and in a later year you have to repay all or part of it, you can usually deduct the repayment in the year in which you make it. If the amount you repay is over $3,000, a special rule applies. For details about the special rule, see Repayments in chapter 13 of Publication 535, Business Expenses.

Expenses

Under the cash method, you must generally deduct expenses in the tax year in which you actually pay them. This includes business expenses for which you contest liability. However, you may not be able to deduct an expense paid in advance or you may be required to capitalize certain costs, as explained under Uniform Capitalization Rules in chapter 7. See chapter 5 for information on how to deduct farm business expenses on your income tax return.

Expenses paid in advance. You can deduct an expense you pay in advance only in the year to which it applies.

Example. You are a calendar year taxpayer and you pay $1,000 in 2000 for a farm insurance policy effective for one year, beginning July 1. You can deduct $500 in 2000 and $500 in 2001.

Accrual Method

Under an accrual method of accounting, you generally report income in the year earned and deduct or capitalize expenses in the year incurred. The purpose of an accrual method of accounting is to match income and expenses in the correct year.

Income

Under an accrual method, you generally include an amount in your gross income for the tax year in which all events that fix your right to receive the income have occurred, and you can determine the amount with reasonable accuracy.

If you use an accrual method of accounting, you will use Part III of Schedule F to report your farm income.

Inventory. If you use an accrual method of accounting, you must use an inventory to determine your gross income. See Farm Inventory, later.

Expenses

Under an accrual method of accounting, you generally deduct or capitalize a business expense when the following apply.

1. The all-events test has been met:
   1. All events have occurred that fix the fact of liability, and
   2. The liability can be determined with reasonable accuracy.
2. Economic performance has occurred.

Economic performance. You generally cannot deduct or capitalize a business expense until economic performance occurs. If your expense is for property or services provided to you, or for your use of property, economic performance occurs as the property or services are provided or as the property is used. If your expense is for property or services you provide to others, economic performance occurs as you provide the property or services. An exception allows certain recurring items to be treated as incurred during a tax year even though economic performance has not occurred. For more information on economic performance, see Publication 538.

Example 1. John is a farmer who uses a calendar tax year and an accrual method of accounting. In December 2000 John buys supplies for $200 that are not acquired for resale and that do not become a physical part of any items held for sale. He receives the supplies and the bill in December 2000, and he pays the bill in January 2001.

John can deduct the expense in 2000 because all events occurred to fix the liability (the supplies were received but not paid for), the liability can be determined (the unpaid bill was for $200), and economic performance occurred in 2000 (the supplies were provided to John in December 2000).

Example 2. Jane is a farmer who uses a calendar tax year and an accrual method of accounting. She enters into a turnkey contract with Waterworks in 2000. The contract states that Jane must pay Waterworks $200,000 in December 2000 and that they will install a complete irrigation system, including a new well, by the close of the year 2002. She pays Waterworks $200,000 in December 2000, they start the installation in May 2002, and they complete the irrigation system in December 2002.

Economic performance for Jane's liability in the contract occurs as the property and services are provided. Jane incurs the $200,000 cost in the year 2002.

Special rule for related persons. You cannot deduct business expenses and interest owed to a related person who uses the cash method of accounting until you make the payment and the corresponding amount is includible in the related person's gross income. Determine the relationship, for this rule, as of the end of the tax year for which the expense or interest would otherwise be deductible. If a deduction is not allowed under this rule, the rule will continue to apply even if your relationship with the person ends before the expense or interest is includible in the gross income of that person.

Related persons include members of your immediate family, including only brothers and sisters (either whole or half), your spouse, ancestors, and lineal descendants. For a list of other related persons, see Publication 538.

Contested liability. If you use an accrual method of accounting and contest an asserted liability for a farm business expense, you can deduct the expense either in the year you pay the contested liability (or transfer money or other property in satisfaction of it) or in the year you finally settle the contest. However, to be able to take the deduction in the year of payment or transfer, you must meet certain conditions. For more information, see Contested Liability under Accrual Method in Publication 538.

Farm Inventory

If you use an accrual method of accounting, you must use an inventory to determine your gross income. You should keep a complete record of your inventory as part of your farm records. This record should show the actual count or measurement of the inventory. It should also show all factors that enter into its valuation, including quality and weight if they are required.

Items to include in inventory. Your inventory should include all items held for sale or use as feed, seed, etc., whether raised or purchased, that are unsold at the end of the year.

Hatchery business. If you are in the hatchery business, you must include eggs in the process of incubation.

Products held for sale. All harvested and purchased farm products held for sale or for feed or seed, such as grain, hay, silage, concentrates, cotton, tobacco, etc., must be included.

Supplies. You must inventory supplies acquired for sale or that become a physical part of items held for sale. Do not include other supplies in inventory. Deduct the cost of the other supplies in the year used or consumed in operations. You can also deduct incidental supplies in the year of purchase.

Fur-bearing animals. If you are in the business of breeding and raising chinchillas, mink, foxes, or other fur-bearing animals, you are a farmer and these animals are livestock. You can use any of the inventory and accounting methods discussed in this chapter.

Growing crops. You are generally not required to inventory growing crops. However, if the crop has a preproductive period of more than 2 years, you may have to capitalize (or include in inventory) costs associated with the crop. You cannot take a current deduction for costs incurred during the preproductive period. See Uniform Capitalization Rules in chapter 7.

Required to use accrual method. If you are required to use an accrual method of accounting:

1. The uniform capitalization rules apply to all costs of raising a plant, even if the preproductive period of raising a plant is 2 years or less.
2. All animals are subject to the uniform capitalization rules.

Inventory valuation methods. You can generally use the following methods to value your inventory:

1. Cost.
2. Lower of cost or market.
3. Farm-price method.
4. Unit-livestock-price method for livestock.

Cost and lower of cost or market methods. See Publication 538 for information on these valuation methods.

If you value your livestock inventory at cost or the lower of cost or market, you do not need IRS approval to change to the unit-livestock-price method.

Farm-price method. Under this method, each item, whether raised or purchased, is valued at its market price less the direct cost of disposition. Market price is the current price at the nearest market in the quantities you usually sell. Cost of disposition includes any broker's commission, freight, hauling to market, and other marketing costs.

If you use this method, you must use it for your entire inventory, except that livestock can be inventoried on the unit-livestock-price method.

Unit-livestock-price method. This method recognizes the difficulty of establishing the exact costs of producing and raising each animal. You group or classify livestock according to type and age and use a standard unit price for each animal within a class or group. The unit price you assign should reasonably approximate the normal costs incurred in producing the animals in such classes. Unit prices and classifications are subject to approval by the IRS on examination of your return. You must annually reevaluate your unit livestock prices and adjust the prices upward to reflect increases in the costs of raising livestock. IRS approval is not required for these adjustments. Any other changes in unit prices or classifications require IRS approval.

If you use this method, you must include all raised livestock in inventory, regardless of whether they are held for sale or for draft, breeding, dairy, or sporting purposes. This method accounts only for the increase in cost of raising an animal to maturity. It does not provide for any decrease in the animal's market value after it reaches maturity. Also, if you raise cattle, you are not required to inventory hay you grow to feed your herd.

Do not include sold or lost animals in the year-end inventory. If your records do not show which animals were sold or lost, treat the first animals acquired as sold or lost. The animals on hand at the end of the year are considered the most recently acquired.

You must include in inventory all livestock purchased primarily for sale. You can include in inventory livestock purchased for draft, breeding, dairy, or sporting purposes, or treat them as depreciable assets. However, you must be consistent from year to year, regardless of the practice you have chosen. You cannot change your practice unless you get IRS approval.

You must inventory animals purchased after maturity or capitalize them at their purchase price. If the animals are not mature at purchase, increase the cost at the end of each tax year according to the established unit price. However, in the year of purchase, do not increase the cost of any animal purchased during the last six months of the year. This rule does not apply to tax shelters, which must make an adjustment for any animal purchased during the year.

Uniform capitalization rules. A farmer can determine costs required to be allocated under the uniform capitalization rules by using the farm-price or unit-livestock-price inventory method. This applies to any plant or animal, even if the farmer does not hold or treat the plant or animal as inventory property.

Cash Versus Accrual Method

The following examples compare the cash and accrual methods of accounting.

Example 1. You are a farmer who uses an accrual method of accounting. You keep your books on the calendar tax year basis. You sell grain in December 2000, but you are not paid until January 2001. You must include both the sale proceeds and your costs incurred in producing the grain on your 2000 tax return. Under an accrual method of accounting, you report your profit or loss for the year in which all events occurred that fix your right to receive income from the transaction and you can determine your profit or loss with reasonable accuracy.

Example 2. Assume the same facts as in Example 1 except that you use the cash method and there was no constructive receipt of the sale proceeds in 2000. Under this method, you include the sale proceeds in income for 2001, the year you receive payment. You deduct the costs of producing the grain in the year you pay them.

Special Methods of Accounting

There are special methods of accounting for certain items of income and expense.

Crop method. If you do not harvest and dispose of your crop in the same tax year you plant it, you can, with IRS approval, use the crop method of accounting. Under this method, you deduct the entire cost of producing the crop, including the expense of seed or young plants, in the year you realize income from the crop.

You cannot use this method for timber or any commodity subject to the uniform capitalization rules.

Other special methods. Other special methods of accounting apply to the following items.

• Amortization, see chapter 8.
• Casualties, see chapter 13.
• Condemnations, see chapter 13.
• Depletion, see chapter 8.
• Depreciation, see chapter 8.
• Farm business expenses, see chapter 5.
• Farm income, see chapter 4.
• Installment sales, see chapter 12.
• Soil and water conservation expenses, see chapter 6.
• Thefts, see chapter 13.

Combination Method

You can generally use any combination of cash, accrual, and special methods of accounting if the combination clearly shows your income and expenses and you use it consistently. However, the following restrictions apply.

1. If you use the cash method for figuring your income, you must use the cash method for reporting your expenses.
2. If you use an accrual method for reporting your expenses, you must use an accrual method for figuring your income.

Change in Accounting Method

Once you have set up your accounting method, you must generally get IRS approval before you can change to another method. A change in your accounting method includes a change in:

1. Your overall method, such as from cash to an accrual method, and
2. Your treatment of any material item, such as a change in your method of valuing inventory (for example, a change from the "farm-price method" to the "unit-livestock-price method").

To get approval, you must file Form 3115. You may have to pay a fee. For more information, see the form instructions.

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